Vintage Images Of British History

The United Kingdom

Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Sea, and it is situated in the Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe. Britain is the largest island in Europe, and the 9th largest island in the world. The United Kingdom is comprised of mainland Britain, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, which has a total land area of about 94,500 square miles. When this article was published the UK's population was about 67 million, meanwhile, the official spoken language in the United Kingdom is English. The UK is situated in a region which is dominated by maritime climate (oceanic climate), meaning that this location is characterized by moderate annual temperatures through winter and summer, but with few extreme temperatures due to maritime influences. The entire Irish land mass (32,595 square miles) is situated to the west of Britain and Ireland is the third-largest island in Europe, and the twentieth largest in the world. There are over 1,000 smaller surrounding islands called substantial rocks that form the British Isles, these are also called archipelagos. Approximately 9,000 years ago, Britain was connected to Europe by an ancient land bridge called the Doggerland, but that stretch of land is now submerged beneath the North Sea due to the meltdown of glaciers during the last Ice Age. The city of London is the capital and financial hub of Britain, and it is a major attraction for millions of foreign tourists from across the world each year. London is said to offer many enchanting and famous places to visit, such as Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, where the Royal family lives, West Minister Abbey, London Bridge, the Tower of London, and the fascinating prehistoric monument called Stonehenge, which is located in a remote area called Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire, England.

Ancient Britain

After the last Ice Age, about 12,000 years ago, various tribes of people from continental Europe began to arrive and settle in different parts of the British Isles, and over many centuries they established their individual cultures and fought for different regions within ancient Britain. Meanwhile, Britain underwent many substantial changes including geological, climatic, social, political, and technological. The earliest known name for mainland Britain was 'Albion' this term was originally created by the ancient Greek scholars of 4th century BC, meanwhile, the terms, Larne, Erin, and Hibernia were used to describe the Kingdom of Ireland, and Caledonia was an ancient Latin name for Scotland. These terms originated from the ancient Gauls and Celtic tribes of people who had once settled within certain regions of the British Isles.

Britain: The Roman Invasions (55 BC), (54 BC), (43 AD)

The Romans invaded Britain on three occasions in British history. The first was 55 BC when Julius Caesar arrived with his military forces, with great expectations to conquer British territories, but unexpectedly, his legions were encountered with fierce and disruptive guerrilla resistance, bad weather, and difficult unchartered terrain, which ultimately resulted in an unsuccessful first mission. However, following greater preparation the Romans tried again a year later, in 54 BC, at which time they numbered 5 legions of military forces, 2,000 cavalry and well over 600 vessels. Nonetheless, although the Romans achieved greater success on their second attempt, a complete victory of Britian had proved elusive, as a result, the Romans conceded and took leave of Britain after a relatively short stay, almost 100 years later in 43 AD, the Roman emperor Claudius launched a full-scale invasion of Britain, which had resulted in the victory of southern Britain. This momentous achievement was one of the primary reasons why the Romans had remained in Britain for almost four centuries, during which time the Romans proceeded to design a network of roads and established towns and cities across different regions of Britain. The largest Roman structure in Britain that has stood the test of time is Hadrian's Wall, this legacy was built in 122 AD. When the Roman emperor Hadrian visited Britain, he ordered the construction of a great defensive northern wall with the aim to secure Britain's north-western border from their most feared enemies who originated from that region. Hadrian's Wall is a historical landmark in Britain that took about six years to complete, and initially it measured 73 miles long, 15 feet high and its wall was about 10 feet thick, currently, Adrian's Wall is the longest wall ever built within the United Kingdom.

The Anglo Saxons (450 AD)

In European history the time span between 500 AD - 1500 AD is traditionally known as the Middle Ages or the medieval period. The term was first used by 15th-century scholars to designate the era between their own time and the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD). The Early medieval period witnessed numerous invasions of Britain by Germanic speaking Saxons beginning in the 5th century. Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were eventually established across the southern half of Britain, following many wars with various other British states, and gradually over time the Saxons were able to claim large territories of England. A famous Anglo-Saxon scholar by the name of Bede, who was considered one of the greatest intellectuals and writers of the Anglo-Saxon era, he had estimated that the first arrivals of Germanic Saxons occurred around 449 AD -450 AD. The German invaders were comprised of various Germanic tribes, chiefly known as Angles from the historical region of Angeln in northeast Schleswig-Holstein, in Germany. The name England originated from the old Saxon term 'Angleland' which means land of the Angles. The original Germanic tribes who first settled in Britain were of diverse heritage, but over time they developed a common cultural identity which became widely known as Anglo-Saxon and this evolution had taken place from the end of Roman rule in Britain, which was about 410 AD, until the early 7th century.

Scotland (843 AD)

The name Scotland is derived from the Latin term Scotia, and the word Scoti was first used by the Romans to describe the ancient Gaelic people who inhabited a region in the northern half of England. It is believed that the term 'Pict' is an exonym that was created by the Romans around the 3rd century AD to describe certain Gaelic people who resided northeast of Scotland, this term is thought to have originated from the Latin term Picti (painted), named so because those particular Scottish tribes had habitually painted their bodies and faces with symbolic tattoos. During late antiquity and the Middle Ages Scotland had been divided into four separate kingdoms, namely, the Picts in the north-east, the tribes of Dal Riata resided in the west, meanwhile, the tribes of Strathclyde (Ystrad Clud) inhabited the south-west, and the tribes of the Anglian Kingdom of Bernicia lived in the south-east region. However, following countless invasions of their lands by foreign forces, particularly, by the Vikings forces during the 9th century, all tribes within each of those kingdoms, decided to combine their clans and tribes to collectively defend their territories against all invaders of their land, this event had marked the birth of the Kingdom Alba (843) which eventually became known as Scotland.

The Middle Ages (410–1400)

Historians have said that the Romans who conquered certain regions of Britain, had left a legacy that eventually played a very significant role in the direction of British history, but it is also important to mention that from the end of Roman rule (410 AD) to the Norman Conquest (1066 AD) was considered to be amongst the most important in English history, and consequently, when the Enlightenment philosophers of the 16th - 17th century had debated the time span between 410 to 1500, their conclusion was that the momentum of intellectual or scientific free thinking had decreased considerably. It was said that this was partly due to the widespread enactment of canon law or religious law in medieval Britain and other parts of Europe. In this era the courts often relied on religious trial by ordeal and the penal system was said to be brutal and inhumane, miscarriages of justice occurred frequently, and many victims who were accused of wrongdoing would be subjected to extreme torture in order to prove their innocence. The Middle Ages was viewed by historians as extremely complex and tumultuous, and difficult to make an in-depth assessment, which was partly due to the scarcity of written information about recorded events within that era. As a result, the so-called Enlightenment scholars assessed the first part of the Middle Ages (410 - 1066) as the Dark Ages, meanwhile, the latter Middle Ages (1066 - 1400) was seen as a time when extreme poverty, famine, and pestilence had swept across much of Europe, which resulted in the death of millions of people who had contracted the Black Death or other deadly diseases, furthermore, much of Europe's economies were left devastated by the unfortunate events. Currently, the Middle Ages are more commonly accepted to span from the 5th century to the start of the Renaissance era, and the Renaissance Age is arguably interpreted by different nations across Europe to have begun in the 14th, 15th, or 16th century, depending on each of those nation's individual viewpoint.

King Alfred The Great (born 848 - died 899) : King Athelstan (born 894 - died 939)

In Britain, the Dark Ages was estimated to span from the fall of the Roman Empire in 476, to the Battle of Hastings in 1066. After the Romans had departed Britain, over the passage of time, many different European tribes of people from other nations arrived to settle within the British Isles. The influences of the Anglo Saxons and the Vikings had significantly shaped the character of England, Scotland, and Ireland, in addition, this age was marked by many internal and external conflicts, diseases, and famine. The British monarchy began from the descendants of King Alfred the Great (born 848 - died 899), who was awarded his name 'Alfred the Great' primarily because his army had heroically defended the last remaining independent Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Wessex from the Viking invaders of England. Alfred became King of Wessex from 871 (also known as the West Saxons), and in the ensuing years, against the odds, Alfred's well-trained armies had successfully repelled countless attacks against his Kingdom by the superior forces of the Vikings which was led by King Guthrum of the Danes. However, Alfred consolidated his army and launched a major counter offensive against King Guthrum's forces at the Battle of Edington in 878, ultimately achieving a famous victory, and following this event, Alfred forged a truce (Treaty of Wedmore) with Guthrum which lasted from 878 to 890. Soon After the treaty, Alfred created visionary reforms for the Kingdom of Wessex, including, architecture, education, schools, English laws, the military, and a special program for translating classical Latin literature into old English. Moreover, Alfred became King of the Anglo-Saxons from around 886 until his death in 899, and then Alfred's son Edward the elder succeeded the throne to become King of the Anglo-Saxons. Importantly, the first sovereign King of the dominion known in that era as England was King Athelstan (born 894 - died 939), Athelstan of the House of Wessex was the son of King Edward the Elder and his first wife Ecgwynn, namely, Athelstan was the grandson of Alfred the Great. After the death of his father King Edward the Elder, in 924, Athelstan was crowned King of the Anglo-Saxons from about 924 to 927. Also, King Athelstan's army successfully launched an attack against the last remaining Viking kingdom of York, in 927, and this victory resulted in King Athelstan becoming the first Anglo-Saxon sovereign of England, namely, the regions that constituted England at that moment in British history. King Athelstan eventually successfully consolidated the English nation, and then he ruled England from 927 until his death in 939.

The Normans (911 AD)

The original Vikings who sailed to Britain from Scandinavia are said to be the great ancestors of the Normans. In the late 9th century, the Vikings successfully captured a region in Northern France that was later named the Duchy of Normandy. Meanwhile, Northern France was then known as the Kingdom of the Franks or the Kingdom of West Francia, also at that time the King of West Francia was Charles III and he had officially granted the region called the Duchy of Normandy to the Vikings in 911. This good will gesture was given in order to maintain peace relations, and also on the condition that the Vikings pay homage to Charles III as their sovereign King and landlord over the entire kingdom of West Francia, eventually, the Normans settled within the Duchy of Normandy and successfully integrated with the indigenous West Franks and Gallo-Romans, whilst at the same time adopting their religious beliefs and cultures. However, the Normans had stubbornly refused to relinquish their lofty ambitions to expand their territory well beyond the regions of the Duchy of Normandy, as a result, over many generations their armies continued numerous aggressive campaigns aiming to acquisition other regions across Europe, including parts of England. Moreover, following many military crusades, the Normans gained an infamous reputation for being extremely ruthless, bloodthirsty, and a highly skilled fighting force. The Normans ruled the Duchy of Normandy until 1204, after which that region was eventually acquisitioned back to France by King Philip Augustus II of France, following his historic victory at the Siege of Château Gaillard (medieval castle) in Normandy.

The Battle Of Hastings (1066)

The English King Edward the Confessor (born 1003 - died 1066), did not sire any children during his reign, therefore, after his death in 1066, there was much confusion about who would be the next rightful heir to the English throne, according to historical records, on the final day that King Edward lay in his bed within his chamber, there were only four witnesses present waiting to hear his last wishes, his wife Edith Godwinson (born 1025 - died 1075), her brother Harold Godwinson (born 1022 - died 1066), the archbishop of Canterbury, and the steward of the Palace, it is said that Edward's last words remained a well-kept secret between these privileged four individuals. Therefore, after Edward's death on 5 January 1066, across much of England there was great speculation and uncertainty about who the late King had actually designated to succeed him to the English throne, nevertheless, there were good reasons to believe that Harold Godwinson would be the favourite to succeed the English throne, even though it was known that Harold did not have royal blood. But due to his popularity, Harold had confidently nominated himself, having received much encouragement from his high-ranking supporters, including a powerful royal advisory group called the Witan. As a result, Harold, who was the Earl of Wessex at that time was eventually crowned King Harold Godwinson II of England, in Westminster Abbey, on 6 January 1066.

After the coronation of King Harold Godwinson II, King Edward's cousin Duke William of Normandy (born 1028 - died 1087) had bitterly disputed the English throne, since he had previously received word on good authority that he would be the next King of England, as a result, in late September 1066, Duke William commanded his Norman army to invade England. William of Normandy, who was later known as William the conqueror, battled against a Saxon army which was commanded by King Harold Godwinson II of England, and according to historical records the battle took place at Senlac Hill, in East Sussex, England, on 14 October 1066. The conflict materialized into a war of attrition which was eventually called the Battle of Hastings, and this war was recorded as an extremely ferocious and bloody encounter that began early morning at about 9am and continued until dusk. Historians continue to disagree about the size of the armies in question, however, there is no dispute that William of Normandy had employed a better plan and military tactics, and additionally, his soldiers were much better prepared for the long battle ahead. William's army was eventually victorious, and King Harold was slain at the battle. This momentous event had changed the course of English history, it brought about an abrupt end to the Saxon era and had marked the dawn of the Norman era, which oversaw the radical transformation of England, in terms of governance, the English education system, the English language, the English religion, English traditions, as well as English architecture and building works. The architecture that was utilized to create many of the famous British cathedrals and castles, including the Tower of London and Windsor castle were all attributed to the Normans. Also, late medieval Britain proved to be a time of significant upheaval, revolts, civil war, plagues, and great revolutionary changes.

The Magna Carta (1215)

King John (1166-1216) was the son of King Henry II and Queen Eleanor Aquitaine. He was the younger brother of Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart, and when Richard I died in April 1199, John was crowned King of England from 1199 until 1216. British historians paint a grim portrait of King John, describing him as one of the worst monarchs in British history, and it is stated that King John had developed a reputation for being a treacherous, selfish, and cruel dictator, who had incurred many enemies. King John had waged a disastrous war against King Philip II of France in 1214, and as a result, England lost the Duchy of Normandy and other important regions in France, which led to the collapse of the Angevin Empire, therefore, a significant number of barons were extremely discontented with King John for taking a decision to start a war and then losing what was once English territories to France. In addition, the English barons and nobles were extremely bitter that they had been forced to pay high taxes to support a failed war against France. As a result the barons demanded new laws that guaranteed them new rights, which the King had stubbornly refused to consent to, but the barons were also very determined, as a consequence, they renounced their allegiance to the King, and then commanded their army of supporters, led by Baron Robert FitzWalter, to march upon London against King John, in May 1215, subsequently, the barons and their rebel forces captured the city of London, which had proved to be a threshold moment in British history.

The rebel barons arranged a meeting with King John, in Runnymede, near Windsor, London, England, on 15 June 1215, 40 barons had attended that meeting, and they confronted and threatened the King with civil war, unless he agreed to all of their terms for peace. King John wanted to avert the grim prospect of a costly war, as a result, he was compelled to sign the agreement that was presented to him on that day. The historic agreement contained a list of demands called the Charter of Liberties, and it was the first official written document which had stated rules of limitations on a King's sovereignty. This historic agreement had established the rights of the wealthy landowners to serve as consultants to the King on any important governmental matters to be decided upon in the future, in addition to their consultation on any future tax reforms. But importantly, this was the first step towards the creation of the British House of Parliament in London.

Magna Carta is known by many names, the Charter of Liberties, the Royal Charter, and the Great Charter. The inauguration of Magna Carta heralded a new uncharted chapter in British history. When the nobles and barons of medieval Britain waged a battle against King John of England in 1215, their objective was to obtain greater rights and authority for themselves and limit the power of the British monarchy, ultimately, however, they had initiated events that would lead to a place beyond their vision of comprehension. Since the introduction of Magna Carta in 1215, over many generations spanning centuries, far nobler enactments have been introduced to the ever-changing construction and reconstruction of a complicated, ever evolving governmental system with numerous constituent parts that is now heralded as modern British democracy, including universal entitlements which have been provided to every citizen, such as human rights, civil rights, gender rights, equal rights, religious rights, workers' rights etc, each of which were courageously fought for over centuries by individuals and various political and religious groups from across the world.

The Tudors (1485–1603)

The Wars of the Roses, which spanned 1455 until 1485, were a series of gruesome dynastic civil wars fought for the throne of England between two rival Royal families and their supporters, both of whom had proclaimed to be the rightful heir to the English throne. Henry VII (born 1457 - died 1509) was head of the Royal House of Lancaster, and Richard III (born 1452 - died 1485) was head of the Royal House of York, each of the families were said to have a linage that stemmed from the age-old Royal House of Plantagenet, which originated from Anjou in France. Henry VII, who was head of the Royal House of Lancaster, achieved a decisive victory over Richard III (head of the House of York) at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Richard III lost his life while fighting on the battlefield due to a lethal blow to his skull by an assailant and he was said to be the last English King to die on the battlefield. The conclusion of the Wars of the Roses marked the beginning of the Tudor dynasty, which is considered by some historians to be the most famous royal family in English history.

According to some sources the fascinating history of the Tudors originated from a scandalous affair between a royal Welsh attendant called Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudor (born 1400- died 1461), and the French born widow Queen Catherine of Valois (born 1401 - died 1437). Catherine became a widow at just 20 years old, after her husband English King Henry V died in 1422, after which reportedly, Catherine began an affair with and then unofficially married Owain Tudor on 3 January 1437, however, some historians contest this claim as unsubstantiated. King Henry VII was the first Tudor King to be officially crowned King of England on 30 October 1485, in a grand coronation in Westminster Abbey, London. The most famous of the Tudors is said to be Henry VIII (born 1491 - died 1547) who was well-known for the creation of the Church of England, which was a foundation called the Protestant Reformation, and that event had changed England from a Catholic nation to a Protestant one. Queen Elizabeth I (born 1553 - died 1603), also referred to as the Virgin Queen, was the daughter of Henry VIII and Ann Boleyn, who was his second wife. However, about three years after their marriage Henry VIII accused Anne Boleyn of adultery and treason, and subsequently, she was executed in 1536. After her execution the British Parliament granted the annulment of Henry's marriage to Ann Boleyn, thereby making Elizabeth an illegitimate child, which removed her right to the English throne, however, Elizabeth's right to succession was reinstated by an Act of Parliament in 1544. Unfortunately, because Elizabeth did not produce any children to succeed her to the English throne, after Elizabeth died in 1603 she was declared the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty.

The Stuarts (1603–1714)

The Stuart era began with a Scottish royal originally known as James Charles Stuart VI (born 1566 - died 1625), who first ruled as the monarch of Scotland, but following the death of his relative Queen Elizabeth I, in 1603, James Stuart was crowned sovereign king of England, Ireland, and Scotland, by virtue of the Union of the Crowns, henceforth, he became known as James I, and his reign spanned 1603 until 1625. James Stuart was the son of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland (born 1542 - died 1587), and she was the cousin of the English Queen Elizabeth I. James Stuart was the closest relative to the deceased Queen Elizabeth I, and because she had died without producing any heirs, James Stuart became the first person of Scottish decent to receive ascension to the English throne. This historic event was said to be the main reason that finally brought peace between two long time adversaries England and Scotland. King Stuart's rule was also known as the Jacobean era (James in Latin means Jacobus) thus the term Jacobean era. At that time in English history the Union of the Crowns had authorized King Stuart I to rule by personal union, as opposed to absolute rule, namely, the kingdoms of Scotland and England remained as individual sovereign states with their own separate parliaments, laws, and judiciaries. This meant that although King Stuart had been ordained to govern both sovereign states, nevertheless, his royal powers were limited.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade (16th-19th century)

During the reign of King Stuart I, the Plantation of Ulster was established, which was a controversial British legislation that authorized the organised colonization of Ulster (Northern Ireland) by English and Scottish protestant settlers. Also notable, King Stuart oversaw England's colonization of North America, which started May 1607 in Jamestown Island, founded by British pioneers called the Virginia Company settlers, this event later proved to be the origin of the United States. During this era Britain had participated in the transatlantic slave trade, which was the systematic capture and transportation of millions of African slaves, including women and children, to colonies within the Americas, and the Caribbean Islands. African slaves were forced to labour long hours each day in the harshest conditions, working within many different industries, whilst they were also denied basic human rights. The slave mortality rates were extremely high as millions died as young adults due to work exhaustion, torture, diseases, chronic malnutrition, and suicide. Many different European countries had participated in the Transatlantic Slave Trade, but Britain had been one of the major profiteers either directly or indirectly relating to this inhumane practice, from which Britain (including many other European nations) obtained significant wealth for the British Crown over many hundreds of years.

The Gunpowder Plot (1605)

One of King Stuart I's memorable legacies is arguably his authorization for the publication of the King James Bible in 1611, which was translated from Latin into English by a group of distinguished English scholars, as a result, the King James Bible proved to be extremely successful in that era, however, King Stuart is probably best remembered for his fortuitous escape in 1605, when he was the intended victim of probably the most audacious assassination attempt on a British monarch in British history. The infamous Gunpowder Plot. also known as the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason, was carried out by 13 men including Guy Fawkes, each of whom intended to murder King Stuart. At that time in British history, Catholics were being persecuted for their religious beliefs, as a result, the group of Catholic assassins were on a deadly mission to establish Catholic sovereignty in Britain by any means. The English Catholic Robert Catesby (born 1573 - died 1605) was the leader and chief devisor of the infamous plot to murder protestant King Stuart I of England and detonate the House of Lords as well as its inhabitants during the State Opening of Parliament on Tuesday 5 November 1605. The group was thought to have rented a cellar beneath the House of Lords, where Guy Fawkes had been left in charge of their stockpiled explosives. However, after an anonymous tip off letter was received, the guards of the building were immediately ordered to search the cellars, where they discovered and captured Guy Fawkes, and following days of interrogation and torture, eventually he confessed. Soon afterwards, government soldiers undertook a lengthy pursuit to capture the other conspirators, and when they were finally confronted a fight ensued which resulted in the death of some members of the group, including Robert Catesby, each of the remaining members were imprisoned then tried and sentenced to death. After Guy Fawkes died, later his name became synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot. The failed Gunpowder Plot is commemorated in the UK every year on 5 November, now famously known as Guy Fawkes Night. After King Stuart's death in 1625, his son Charles I (born 1600 - 1649) was crowned as the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland on 27 March 1625.

The Stuart dynasty was a tumultuous era that witnessed revolutionary changes in British politics and religion, including wars and plagues. The pneumonic plague of 1665 was a highly contagious and deadly disease, which attacked the lungs of its victims, and said to be the advance form of the bubonic plague. Also, in that era important discoveries and innovations had transformed science and the lives of British people and the Stuart era is also remembered for the British Parliament's unprecedented legislation to abolish the monarchy on 17 March 1649, nevertheless, this law was revoked on 14 May 1660 when Charles II was formally reinstated as King of Britain. The English Civil Wars (1642-1651) originated from a major difference of political and religious beliefs between King Charles I and his parliament. During the English Civil Wars, Oliver Cromwell, who was an English general, commanded the armies of the English Parliament to fight against King Charles I and his supporters, ultimately, Oliver Cromwell's forces defeated the royalist armies of King Charles I, in 1649, after which King Charles was taken captive, put on trial, and eventually convicted of treason, then executed on 30 January 1649.

The Interregnum (1649 - 1660)

The Interregnum is defined as the years between the execution of King Charles I on 30 January 1649, and the triumphant return to England by his son Charles II on 29 May 1660 intending to claim the English throne, this event marked the start of the restoration of the English monarchy in 1660. The first English Civil War (1642 - 1646) was primarily caused by a serious nationwide disagreement over religious faith (Protestantism and Catholicism), a growing discontentment with King Charles's frequent abuse of his royal powers, as well as his failing economic policies. Meanwhile, Oliver Cromwell's exceptional rise to power began during the first English Civil War, he went from an English commoner to a commanding chief of a well-trained army that opposed King Charles I. As a consequence, Oliver Cromwell's army battled against the army of King Charles I during the Second English War (1648 - 1649), and ultimately, Cromwell's forces defeated the so-called British royalist or loyalists, and subsequently, Charles I was executed in January 1649, after which Oliver Cromwell's government abolished the monarchy, and the House of Lords, and then established the Commonwealth of England, meaning, Britain became a republic. Cromwell was offered the throne of England, but he refused to be King of England, since he had been opposed to the English monarchy, preferring instead to rule Britain as Lord Protector until his death in 1658. After Oliver Cromwell's death, his son Richard seized the reigns as Lord Protector of England, but he lacked the leadership capabilities of his father, therefore, Richard Cromwell was eventually ousted from power by the English army leaders in May 1659. Then in 1660, the government decided that it would be better for the nation to restore the monarchy to power, therefore, the English Parliament invited King Charles II to return to England intending him to reclaim the throne, but it is noteworthy that the British military was significantly influential in organizing the restoration of the British monarchy.

King Charles II (born 1630 - died 1685)

King Charles II (born 1630 - died 1685) was King of Scotland from 1649 - 1651 and King of England, Ireland, and Scotland from the 1660 Restoration of the English monarchy until his demise in 1685. Charles II became known as the 'Merry Monarch' on account of his overindulgences in entertainment and his affairs with several mistresses. Charles's reign oversaw the rise of British colonialism in many different countries, increased trade in India, as well as the East Indies and the Americas. Charles II also oversaw the Navigation Act of 1660, which authorized greater regulation of Britain's overseas trade, and provided greater financial backing for building more British ships, especially war ships, and he also founded the Royal Society in 1660, which was dedicated to scientific research. Charles II was viewed by some people to be a tolerant ruler, partly because he had granted religious freedoms to Catholics and Protestants, at a time in British history, when both religious groups were infamously antagonistic to each other, in contrast, there were many other British citizens who were very opposed to many of his policies. King Charles II had fathered many illegitimate children with several of his mistresses, but he had not sired any legitimate children to inherit the English throne. Therefore, when Charles II suddenly died of a stroke on 6 February 1685, he was succeeded by his younger brother James VII of Scotland. James VII was a Roman Catholic, this meant that he was not greatly respected by large sections of British society or considered to be a good prospect for the English throne, nevertheless, he was crowned King James II of England and Ireland, and King James VII of Scotland from 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution in 1688.

William Of Orange King Of England (1689-1702)

The reign of King James II (born 1633 - died 1701) was unpopular amongst many English Protestant nobles who were against him because of his Roman Catholic faith, but he was also disliked because of his stance on absolutism, which is a belief in rule by divine right, namely, a doctrine that a monarch is not held accountable by any person, parliament, or institution for his decisions or actions in terms of ruling a nation. Also, King James II is remembered for being the last Catholic monarch of England and his reign was notable for numerous religious conflicts across Britain. However, in 1688, William III, who was a Dutchman by birth, also known as William of Orange, was encouraged by English Protestant nobles who were plotting against King James II, to invade England so that he could claim the English throne, and zealously preserve Protestantism, moreover, William was given a promise that his army would not be opposed on entering Britain. Meanwhile, when James II became aware of the conspiracy against him, he hastily departed Britain and took refuge in France with his infant son. William of Orange accepted the invitation, and when his army eventually arrived in Britain, they were mostly uncontested, as a result, William of Orange is remembered for claiming the English throne largely without any bloodshed, this remarkable event became famously known as the Glorious Revolution of 1688. William III and his wife Mary II (King James II's daughter) co-reigned as Protestant monarchs of England, Scotland, and Ireland between 1689 - 1702. Because Mary II was a Stuart by heritage, and she was married to William III, this meant that even though James II had abdicated the English throne and fled to France, nevertheless, officially, the era of the Stuarts had continued under William III and Mary II. William of Orange is remembered for legislating several significant English laws. The Act of Settlement was passed by the English Parliament in 1701, which ensured that the succession of English and Irish crowns would be passed to protestant monarchs, and this law guaranteed a parliamentary system of government, which is precisely what many English Protestant nobles had previously called for. In addition, the Act of Settlement also served to strengthen the Bill of Rights which had received Royal Ascent on 16th December 1689, this legislation had established the order of succession for Mary II's heirs. However, Mary II, the wife of King William of Orange, suffered with several miscarriages during her marriage to him, meaning, when Mary II tragically died of smallpox in 1694, she did not leave an heir to the English throne.

On 20 February 1702, William of Orange went out horse riding on his favourite horse Sorrell, in Hampton Court, when unexpectedly, his horse bolted after stepping on a molehill, causing William to fall on the ground and seriously injure his collar bone. Soon after his accident, against given professional medical advice, William travelled to Kensington Palace, and due to his unnecessary exertions, his health began to seriously deteriorate over the ensuing days. William died tragically on 8 March 1702, and following his death, the sister of Mary II, Anne Stuart (born 1665 - died 1714), succeeded the English throne. Queen Anne had legislated important English laws during her sovereignty, such as, the Act of Union, which were two Acts of Parliament, the union with Scotland Act 1706 was passed by the Parliament of Scotland, and the union with England Act 1707 was passed by the Parliament of England. Therefore, starting from 1706 in accordance with these enactments, England and Scotland became officially known as the United Kingdom, henceforth known as Great Britain. England and Scotland had already begun sharing a sovereign monarchy since the Union of the Crown in 1603, when the Scottish monarch James VI had inherited the English throne as James I from his relative and predecessor, Queen Elizabeth I. As a result, Queen Anne officially reigned as Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland, until her demise in 1714, when she was declared the last monarch of the House of Stuarts to rule the United Kingdom.

The Georgians (1714–1837)

Queen Anne was the last monarch of the Stuart dynasty, under the Treaty of Union (1707), Anne became the first Queen to rule over the United Kingdom. Queen Anne died in 1714 with no surviving children to take the throne after her, therefore, the Hanoverians, who were of German descent was presented with the honour of the English throne. The Georgian era started from 1714, and the first Hanoverian King of Britain was in fact the 52nd in line to the British throne. But by virtue of the Act of Settlement, the Crown was given to the nearest eligible protestant relative, who was George Ludwig I (born 1660 - died 1727). The Georgian era was named thus, because of the reign of the four Georges, George I, George II, George III, and George IV. George III remains the longest serving King in British history, and the third longest reigning monarch in British history, only surpassed by Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II. According to many historians, the Georgian era was observed as a comparatively stable time within Britain. During this era Great Britain underwent rapid changes politically, militarily, and economically, also from the 18th century onwards Britain was established as an international power at the centre of an expanding colonial empire. Britain became the world’s first industrialised nation, which initiated the Industrial Revolution (1760 - 1860), other western nations followed fashion, including the United States. It was also recorded that the British government was notorious for using exploitative political policies to significantly increase wealth for the British Crown and the elite classes within the United Kingdom, some of which were derived from multitudes of so-called British peasants or millions of impoverished British people, who suffered with daily hunger, ill health, diseases, and poor accommodation. In addition, the British Crown was profiteering from and heavily involved in the African slave trade, as well as the implementation of ruthless colonial rule in certain other parts of the world.

The Victoria Era (1837–1901)

Queen Alexandrina Victoria (1819 - 1901) inherited the English throne when she was just 18 years old, and in British history her reign became known as the Victorian era. Queen Victoria ruled Britain from 1837 until she passed away in 1901. Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom for sixty-three years, seven months and two days. Her reign is only surpassed by her great-great granddaughter the extremely respected and well-known Queen Elizabeth II, which she achieved on 9 September 2015. In the Victorian era Britain acquired unprecedented power and wealth, partly due to the Industrial Revolution, but also because of British colonialism in certain parts of the world. Great Britain became infamous for ruthlessly exercising repression and control over its many colonies across the globe, but it was particularly the case relating to Britain's involvement in the African slave trade. Historians also proclaim that during the Victorian era Britain had achieved relative political stability, which assisted Britain, among other things, with advancements in education, science and research, technology and engineering, mathematics, transport, communication, as well as important political changes such as the Reform Acts, which was enacted by the British Parliament to introduce major changes to the British electoral system.

Edwardian Era (1901 - 1910)

When Queen Victoria died in 1901, her eldest son Albert Edward VII (born 1841- died 1910) became King of Britain and during King Edward's brief sovereignty he had established a reputation for being a very pleasant and charming socialite, however, and some of his critics had accused him of gaining a reputation of sometimes indulging rather too excessively in social escapades, and rather cavalier and neglectful regarding his royal responsibilities. Although King Edward died in 1910, it is sometimes said that the Edwardian era spanned 1901 - 1914, which was the start of World War I. Meanwhile, the British elite class were busy publicly flaunting their fashionable attire and worldly possessions, whilst enjoying a luxurious and indulgent lifestyle, but it should be mentioned that many people had viewed this era as a time of moral decline, nevertheless, many historians agree that this brief, but fascinating age witnessed significant changes relating to social, political, and technological innovations in respect to steamships, trains, rail network, and motor vehicles. This decade is also remembered for the rise of the Suffragette movement, British women who were courageously fighting for equal rights, especially, the right to vote. Also notable, was the emergence of the Labour Party, and the conclusion of the Boer Wars, which related to British colonial rule in South Africa. This era also witnessed international tensions running high between Britain and certain other nations across the globe, meanwhile, nationalism and imperialism were political movements dangerously on the rise across the world, with the spectre of the First World War (1914-1918) creeping ever closer.