Vintage Images Of British History

Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Sea, and it is situated in the Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe. Britain is the largest island in Europe, and the 9th largest island in the world. The United Kingdom is comprised of mainland Britain, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, which has a total land area of about 94,500 square miles. On the date of this publication the UK's population was said to be approximately 67 million, meanwhile, the official spoken language in the United Kingdom is English. The UK is situated in a region which is dominated by maritime climate (dominated by oceanic climate), meaning that this location is characterized by moderate annual temperatures through winter and summer, but with few extreme temperatures due to maritime influences. Ireland is comprised of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Island and it is situated to the west of Britain. Ireland is the third-largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest in the world. There are over 1,000 smaller surrounding islands called substantial rocks that form the British Isles, these are also called archipelagos. Once upon a time (roughly 9,000 years ago) Britain was connected to the rest of Europe by an ancient land bridge called the Doggerland and that stretch of land is now submerged beneath the North sea due to the meltdown of glaciers during the last Ice Age. Britain is famous for the royal family, and it is the birth place of the iconic British pop group called the Beatles, whose legendary songs have endured over the passage of time. The city of London is the capital and financial hub of Britain, and it is a major attraction each year for millions of foreign tourists from across the world. London offers many enchanting places to visit, as well as well-known buildings such as Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, West Minister Abbey, London Bridge, and the Tower of London. Also, the UK is famous for the fascinating prehistoric monument called Stonehenge, which is located on Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire, England.

Pre-British history after the last Ice Age, about 12,000 years ago, various tribes of people from continental Europe began to settle in different parts of the British Isle, ever since, over the centuries many different people from overseas have arrived and departed from Britain for various reasons, some of which had fiercely contested certain regions within Britain, and then settled therein by integrating with the native communities whilst adopting foreign cultures and distributing their own cultures. As Britain evolved over many eras it underwent many substantial changes including geological, climatic, social, political, and technological. The earliest known name for mainland Britain was 'Albion' a term originally created by the ancient Greek scholars of the 4th century BC, meanwhile the terms, Lerne, Erin, and Hibernia were used to describe the Kingdom of Ireland, and 'Caledonia' was an ancient Latin name for Scotland. These terms are believed to have originated from the ancient Gauls and Celtic peoples who had once settled within certain parts of the British Isle.

The Roman Invasions of England

The Romans invaded Britain on three occasions in British history. The first was 55 BC when Julius Caesar arrived with his military forces, with great expectations to conquer British territories, but unexpectedly his legions were encountered with fierce and disruptive guerrilla resistance, bad weather, and difficult unchartered terrain, which ultimately resulted in an unsuccessful first mission. With greater preperation the Romans tried again in 54 BC, they numbered 5 legions of military forces, 2,000 cavalry and well over 600 vessels. However, although the Romans achieved greater success on their second attempt, a complete victory of Britian had proved to be too elusive, as a result, the Romans conceded and took leave of Britain after a relatively short time. It was almost 100 years later, in 43 AD when the Roman emperor Claudius launched a full-scale invasion of Britain, which had resulted in the victory of much of southern Britain. This momentous achievement was one of the primary reasons why the Romans had remained in Britain for almost four centuries. During which time the Romans proceeded to design a network of roads and established towns and cities across different regions of Britain. The largest Roman structure in Britain that has stood the test of time is Hadrian's Wall, this legacy was built in 122 AD. When the Roman emperor Hadrian visited Britain, he ordered the construction of a great defensive northern wall in order to secure Britain's north-western border from their most feared enemies originating from that region. Hadrian's Wall is a historical landmark in Britain that took about six years to complete, and initially it measured 73 miles long, 15 feet high and its wall was about 10 feet thick, currently, Adrian's Wall is the longest wall ever built within the United Kingdom.

The First Anglo Saxons

European history that spans from about 500 AD to 1500 AD is traditionally known as the middle Ages or the medieval period. The term was first used by 15th-century scholars to designate the era between their own time and the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD). The Early medieval period witnessed numerous invasions of Britain by Germanic speaking Saxons beginning in the 5th century. Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were eventually established across the southern half of Britain, following many wars with various other British states, and gradually over time the Saxons were able to claim the territories of present-day England. A famous scholar by the name of Bede was an Anglo Saxon, who was considered to be one of the greatest intellectuals and writers of the Anglo Saxon era. Bede estimated that the first arrivals of Germanic Saxons occurred around 449 AD, and most historians are in agreement that the given date is a fairly accurate one for that event. The German invaders were comprised of various Germanic tribes, chiefly known as Angles from the historical region of Angeln in north east Schleswig-Holstein, in Germany. The name England originated from the Old Saxon term 'Angleland' which means land of the Angles. The original Germanic tribes who first settled in Britain were of diverse heritage, but over time they developed a common cultural identity which became widely known as Anglo-Saxon. This evolution had taken place from the end of the Roman rule in Britain which was around 410 AD to the early 7th century.

The Origin Of Scotland

The name Scotland is derived from the Latin term Scotia, and the word Scoti was first used by the Romans to describe the ancient Gaelic people who inhabited a region in the northern half of England. It is believed that the term 'Pict' is an exonym that was created by the Romans around the 3rd century AD in order to describe certain Gaelic people who resided northeast of Scotland. The term is thought to have originated from the Latin term Picti (painted), named so because those particular Scottish tribes had habitually painted their bodies and faces with symbolic tattoos. During late antiquity and the Middle Ages Scotland had been divided into four separate kingdoms, namely, the Picts in the north-east, the tribes of Dal Riata resided in the west, meanwhile the tribes of Strathclyde (Ystrad Clud) inhabited the south-west, and the tribes of the Anglian Kingdom of Bernicia lived in the south-east region. However, following countless invasions of their lands by foreign forces, particularly, by the Vikings forces during the 9th century, all tribes within each of those kingdoms, decided to combine their clans and tribes in order to collectively defend their territories against all invaders of their land, this event had marked the birth of the Kingdom of Alba, which eventually became known as Scotland.

The Middle Ages (410–1400)

The Romans played a very important part in the evolution of British history, but the six centuries from the end of Roman rule (410 AD) to the Norman Conquest (1066 AD), are said to be among the most important in English history. During the Age of Enlightenment which occurred between 1685 and 1815, the so called enlightenment thinkers of that era had aligned their principles and learning with the classical Greek and Roman scholars of antiquity. And when the Enlightenment thinkers debated the centuries that spanned 410 AD to 1066 AD, their conclusion was that comparitively the momentum of intellectual learning had decreased considerably, and the Middle Ages was deemed as one of the most tumultuous, complex, and difficult to comprehend. This was partly due to the scarcity of discovered written information about recorded events within that era, and for this reason the first part of the Middle Ages (410 - 1066) was termed by the Enlightenment scholars as, the Dark Ages. Meanwhile, the latter half of the Middle Ages (1066 - 1400) was seen as a time when extreme poverty, famine, and pestilence had swept across much of Europe and millions of people had contracted and died of the Black Death, or other deadly diseases, additionally, many of Europe's economies were left devastated. However, today, the Middle Ages are more commonly known to span from the 5th century to the start of the Renaissance era. The Renaissance Age is arguably interpreted by various regions of Europe to have started in the 14th, 15th or 16th century, depending on the individual nation, however, it is generally accepted by historians that the Renaissance era ended in the 17th century.

Athelstan (894-939): The First King Of England (927-939)

In Britain, the Dark Ages are estimated to have spanned from the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 to the Battle of Hastings in 1066. After the Romans had departed from Ireland, Scotland, and England, the United Kingdom gradually became a melting pot of various European tribes of people, whom arrived from abroad to settle therein. The influences of the Anglo Saxons and the Vikings had significantly shaped the character of England, Scotland, and Ireland, also, this era was marked by many conflicts, diseases, and famine. The British monarchy began from the descendants of King Alfred the Great (born 848 AD - died 899 AD). Alfred the Great was named 'Great' primarily because his army had heroically defended the last remaining independent Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Wessex from the Viking invaders of England. Alfred became King of Wessex from 871, which was also known as the West Saxons. Over the ensuing years, against all the odds, Alfred's well-trained armies had successfully repelled countless attacks against his Kingdom by the superior forces of the Vikings. But in 1880, King Alfred unexpectedly made a peace treaty with King Guthrum of the Danes (Vikings). And following that treaty, King Alfred created visionary reforms for the Kingdom of Wessex, including, architecture, the military, education, public schools, the law code, and he created a program for translating classical literature from Latin into Old English. Alfred the Great eventually became King of the Anglo-Saxons from the year 886 until his death in 899. Alfred's son Edward the elder, succeeded the throne to become King of the Anglo-Saxons. However, the first sovereign King of the dominion known in that era, as England, was King Athelstan (born 894 - died 939). Athelstan of the House of Wessex was the son of King Edward the Elder and his first wife Ecgwynn, and importantly, he was the grandson of Alfred the Great. Athelstan became King of the Anglo-Saxons from 924 to 927, and in the year 927, King Athelstan's army finally defeated the last remaining Viking kingdom, which was situated at York, in England, this victory was regarded as a historic event, since it had made King Athelstan the first Anglo-Saxon ruler of all England (the entire region that had constituted England at that time in history). King Athelstan went on to consolidate the English nation, and then he ruled all of England from 927 until his death in 939.

The Normans

The Normans' great ancesters were Vikings that had sailed to Britain from Scandinavia, also known as Norsemen or Northmen, meaning ' men from the north' and this was the term from which Normandy was derived. The Vikings invaded and gained control of a region in Northern France (late 9th century) that they later founded as the Duchy of Normandy, in 911 AD. Northern France was then known as the Kingdom of the Franks or the Kingdom of West Francia. At that time in history the King of West Francia was Charles III, and he granted the region called the Duchy of Normandy to the Vikings in 911 AD, but this good will gesture was on the condition that the Vikings pay homage to Charles III as their sovereign King and landlord over the entire kingdom of West Francia. The Normans settled within the Duchy of Normandy and they integrated with the indigenous West Franks and Gallo-Romans therein, whilst at the same time the different groups of peoples underwent the amalgamation of each other's religious beliefs and cultures. However, the Normans had stubbornly refused to relinquish their high ambitions to expand their territory well beyond the regions of the Duchy of Normandy, as such, over many generations they aggressively campaigned to acquisition other regions across Europe, including parts of England, and as a result of their numerous military crusades, the Normans acquired a infamous reputation for being an extremely ruthless, highly skilled, and fearsome fighting force. The Normans ruled the Duchy of Normandy until 1204, when that region was eventually acquisitioned back to France by King Philip Augustus II of France, after his historic victory at the Siege of Château Gaillard (a medieval castle) in Normandy, France.

The Battle Of Hastings (1066)

The English King, who was known as Edward the Confessor (born 1003 - died 1066), did not beget any children during his reign, and as a result, following his death in 1066, there was much confusion about who should be the next rightful heir to the English throne. On that fateful day, as King Edward lay upon his bed within his chamber, there were only four individuals present to hear his last wishes, his wife Edith Godwinson (born 1025 - died 1075), her brother Harold Godwinson (born 1022 - died 1066), the archbishop of Canterbury, and the steward of the palace. Therefore, following Edward's death on 5 January 1066 it is said that there was great speculation and uncertainty about who he had actually designated to succeed him to the English throne. Nevertheless, there had been very good reasons to believe that Harold Godwinson was considered to be one of the favourites to succeed the English throne at that particular moment, even though it was known that he did not possess royal blood. And due to his popularity, Harold had confidently nominated himself, having received much encouragement from some of his high-ranking supporters, including a powerful royal advisory group called the Witan. It followed that Harold Godwinson, who was the Earl of Wessex at that particular time, was eventually given a royal coronation in Westminster Abbey, in London, 6 January 1066, when he was proclaimed King Harold Godwinson (II).

However, it was the case that King Edward's cousin Duke William of Normandy (born 1028 - died 1087) had bitterly disputed the English title, since he had previously received word on good authority that he would be the next King of England. As a consequence, in late September, 1066, Duke William had commanded his Norman army to invade England, once they had ventured from their homeland the Duchy of Normandy, in Northern France. William of Normandy, who was later known as William the conqueror, had waged a war against the Saxon army which was commanded by King Harold Godwinson (II) of England. According to English historical records the battle actually took place at Senlac Hill, in East Sussex, England, on 14 October, 1066, and this war of attrition between the two adversaries was called the Battle of Hastings. The ferocious fighting was said to have started early morning at about 9am and continued until dusk. Many historians continue to disagree about the size of the two armies in question. However, there is no dispute that William of Normandy had employed a better plan and military tactics, and additionally, his soldiers were much better prepared for the long battle ahead. William's army was eventually victorious and King Harold was slain at the battle. This momentous event had changed the course of English history, it brought about an abrupt end to the Saxon era and had marked the dawn of the Norman era, which oversaw the radical transformation of England, in terms of governance, the English education system, the English language, the English religion, English traditions, and also, English architecture and building works. The architecture that was utilized to create many of the famous British cathedrals and castles, including the Tower of London and Windsor castle were all attributed to the Normans. But the late medieval era within Britain had also proved to be a time of significant upheaval, revolts, civil war, plagues, and great revolutionary changes.

The Magna Carta (1215)

King John (1166-1216) was the son of King Henry II and Queen Eleanor Aquitaine. He was the younger brother of Richard I, also known as Richard the Lionheart. When Richard I died in April 1199, John was crowned King of England from 1199 until 1216. British historians paint a grim portrait of King John, describing him as one of the worst monarchs in British history, and it is stated that King John had developed a reputation for being a treacherous, selfish, and cruel dictator, who had incurred many enemies. King John had waged a disastrous war against King Philip II of France in 1214, and as a result, England lost the Duchy of Normandy and other important regions in France, which led to the collapse of the Angevin Empire. A significant number of barons were extremely discontented with King John for taking a decision to start a war and then losing what was once English territories to France. Additionally, the English barons and nobles were extremely bitter that they had been forced to pay high taxes in order to support the a failed war against France. As a result the barons demanded new laws that guaranteed them new rights, which the King had stubbornly refused to consent to, but the barons were also very determined, as a consequence, they renounced their allegiance to the King, and then commanded their army of supporters, led by Baron Robert FitzWalter, to march upon London against King John, in May 1215, subsequently, the barons and their rebel forces captured the city of London, which had proved to be a threshold moment in British history.

The rebel barons arranged a meeting with King John, in Runnymede, near Windsor, in London, England, on 15 June 1215. And at that meeting around 40 barons had confronted and threatened the King with civil war, unless he agreed to all of their terms for peace. King John wanted to avert the grim prospect of a costly war, so he felt compelled to sign the agreement that was presented to him on 15 June 1215. The historic agreement contained a list of demands called the Charter of Liberties, and it was the first official written document which had stated rules of limitations on a King's sovereignty. This historic agreement had established the rights of the wealthy landowners to serve as consultants to the King on any important governmental matters to be decided upon in the future, in addition to their consultation on any future tax reforms. But importantly, this was said to be the first step towards the creation of the British House of Parliament in London.

The Tudors (1485–1603)

The Wars of the Roses which spanned (1455-1485) were a series of gruesome dynastic civil wars fought for the throne of England between two rival Royal families and their supporters, both of whom had proclaimed to be the rightful heirs to the English throne. Henry VII (born 1457 - died 1509) was head of the Royal House of Lancaster, and Richard III (born 1452 - died 1485) was head of the Royal House of York, each of the families were said to have a linage that had stemmed from the age-old Royal House of Plantagenet which originated from Anjou in France. Henry VII, who was head of the Royal House of Lancaster, achieved a decisive victory over Richard III (head of the House of York) at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Richard III lost his life while fighting on the battle field as a result of a lethal blow to his skull by an assailant. He was said to be the last English King to die on the battle field. The conclusion of the Wars of the Roses marked the beginning of the Tudor dynasty, which is considered by some historians to be the most famous royal family in English history.

The family history of the Tudors is thought to have arisen from a scandalous affair between a royal Welsh attendant called Owain ap Maredudd ap Tudor (1400-1461), and the French born widow Queen, Catherine of Valois (1401 - 1437), whose husband English King Henry V died in 1422 when Catherine was just 20 years old. The widowed Queen Catherine was reported to have unofficially married Owain Tudor on the day she died which was 3 January 1437. However, some historians contest this claim as unsubstantiated. King Henry VII was the first Tudor King to be officially crowned King of England 30 October 1485, at Westminster Abbey, in London. It was a coronation which began a new Tudor Dynasty that reigned until March 1603. The most famous of the Tudors is said to be Henry VIII (born 1491 - died 1547). He was partly well-known for the creation of the Church of England, which was a significant foundation called the Protestant Reformation and that event changed England from a Catholic nation to a Protestant one. Queen Elizabeth I (born 1553 - died 1603), also referred to as the Virgin Queen, was the daughter of Henry VIII and Ann Boleyn, who was his second wife. However, about three years after their marriage Henry VIII accused Anne Boleyn of adultery and treason, and subsequently, she was executed in 1536. After her execution the British Parliament granted the annulment of Henry's marriage to Ann Boleyn, thereby, making Elizabeth an illegitimate child which removed her right to the English throne, however, Elizabeth's right to succession was reinstated by an Act of Parliament in 1544. But because Elizabeth (I) did not produce any children to succeed her to the English throne, therefore, after Elizabeth died in 1603, she was declared the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty,

The Stuarts (1603–1714)

The Stuart era began with a Scottish royal originally known as James Charles Stuart VI (born 1566 - died 1625), who first ruled as the monarch of Scotland, but following the death of his relative Queen Elizabeth (I) in 1603, James Stuart was crowned sovereign king of England, Ireland, and Scotland by virtue of the Act, union of the crowns, and there after he became known as James (I), his reign spanned 1603 to 1625. James Stuart was the son of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots (born 1542 - died 1587), and she was the cousin of the English Queen Elizabeth I. James Stuart was the closest relative to the deceased Queen Elizabeth I, and since she had died without producing any heirs, James Stuart became the first person of Scottish decent to receive ascension to the English throne. This historic event was said to be the primary key which finally brought peace between two long time adversaries England and Scotland. King Stuart I's rule was also known as the Jacobean era, the name James in Latin is Jacobus, thus the term Jacobean era. At that particular time in English history the union of the crowns had authorized King Stuart (I) to rule by personal union, as compared with absolute rule, meaning, the kingdoms of Scotland and England remained as individual sovereign states with their own separate parliaments, laws and judiciaries. Although King Stuart (I) had been ordained to govern both sovereign states, his power was limited to a degree.

The British African Slave Trade

During King Stuart I's tenure, the Plantation of Ulster was established, which entailed a controversial British policy that introduced the organised colonization of Ulster (Northern Ireland) by English and Scottish protestant settlers. King Stuart I's reign also oversaw England's colonization of the Americas, which later proved to be the incipiency of the United States. A dark part of British history which is not often highlighted in great depth, was a time when Britain participated in the transatlantic slave trade. The British crown had given royal approval to in effect, perpetrate crimes against humanity, when Britain was heavily involved in the transportation of millions of African slaves, including women and children, to colonies within the Americas, and many Caribbean islands. African slaves were forced to labor long hours each day in the harshest conditions, working within many different industries, whilst they were also denied basic human rights. The slave mortality rates were extremely high, millions died as young adults due to work exhaustion, and many committed suicide. Many European countries had participated in the African slave trade, but Britain had been one of the major profiteers of that abhorrent practice, obtaining significant wealth for the British crown over many hundreds of years.

The Gunpowder Plot (1605)

One of King Stuart I's finest legacies is arguably his authorization for the publication of the King James Bible in the year 1611, which had been translated from Latin into English by a group of distinguished English scholars. The King James Bible had proved to be extremely successfully in that era. However, King Stuart (I) is probably best remembered for his fortuitous escape in the year 1605, when he was the intended victim of probably the most audacious assassination attempts in British history. The infamous Gunpowder Plot. also known as the Gunpowder Treason Plot or the Jesuit Treason, was carried out by 13 men including Guy Fawkes, all of whom intended to murder Stuart (I). At that particular time in British history, Catholics were being persecuted for their religious beliefs. As a result, the group of Catholic assassins were on a deadly mission to establish Catholic sovereignty in Britain. The English Catholic Robert Catesby (born 1573 - died 1605) was the leader and chief orchestrator of the plan to murder protestant King Stuart (I). The group was thought to have rented a cellar beneath the House of Lords, where Guy Fawkes had been left in charge of their stockpiled explosives. However, after an anonymous letter was received, the guards of the building were ordered to search the cellars, whereupon, they captured Guy Fawkes. And following days of interrogation and torture, eventually he confessed. Very soon afterwards government soldiers undertook a lengthy pursuit to capture the other conspirators, and when they were finally confronted a fight ensued which resulted in the death of some members of the group, including Robert Catesby. All of the remaining members were imprisoned then tried and sentenced to death. When Guy Fawkes died, over time his name became synonymous with the Gunpowder Plot. The failed Gunpowder Plot is commemorated in the UK every year on 5 November, now famously known as Guy Fawkes Night. After King Stuart I's death in 1625, his son Charles (I) (born 1600 - 1649) was crowned as the King of England, Scotland, and Ireland on 27 March 1625.

The reign of the Stuart dynasty was a tumultuous era that witnessed revolutionary changes in British politics and religion, as well as wars and plagues, including, the pneumonic plague of 1665, a deadly disease which attacked the lungs, it was the advance form of the bubonic plague, and it was contagious from one person to another through contact, coughs or sneezes. Also, during that era there were important discoveries and innovations that had transformed science and the lives of British people. Importantly, the Stuart era is remembered for the British Parliament's unprecedented legislation to abolish the monarchy on 17 March 1649, but this law was revoked in May 1660 in order to form a British republic under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell. The English Civil Wars (1642-1651) originated from a major difference of political and religious ideas between King Charles (I) and his parliament. During the English Civil Wars, Oliver Cromwell, who was an English general, commanded the armies of the English Parliament to fight against King Charles (I) and his supporters. Ultimately, Oliver Cromwell's forces defeated the Roylist armies of King Charles I, in 1649, after which King Charles (I) was taken captive, then put on trial and eventually convicted of treason, before he was executed on 30 January 1649.

The Interregnum (between reigns) are defined as the years between the execution of King Charles (I) on 30 January 1649, and the triumphant return to England of his son Charles II on 29 May 1660 to claim the English throne, an event which had marked the start of the Restoration of the monarchy. During the Interregnum era, Oliver Cromwell and the other leaders of England at that time had experimented with implementing various forms of republican style governance, which caused much disagreement and division within Britain. As a consequence, a military style rule had been implemented, but this had proved to be very unpopular with the British general public. After Oliver Cromwell died in 1658, the British regime that he had orchestrated began to collapse into near anarchy, a chaotic climax to a decade of upheaval in England. As a result, in the year 1660, it was decided that the monarchy should be restored, so the English Parliament invited King Charles II to return to England in order for him to reclaim the throne. But importantly, the British military was said to have been significantly influential in organizing the restoration of the British monarchy.

King Charles II (born 1630 - died 1685) became known as the 'Merry Monarch' on account of his over indulgences in entertainment and his many affairs with a variety of different women. Charles's reign oversaw the rise of colonization and trade in India, including the East Indies and the Americas, but also, the Navigation Act of 1660, which authorized greater regulation of Britain's overseas trade, and provided much greater financial backing for building more British ships, particularly war ships, in order to secure Britain's future as a major sea power. He also founded the Royal Society in 1660 (dedicated to scientific research). Charles II was known to be quite a tolerant ruler, who had granted religious freedoms to Catholics and Protestants, at a time in Britain, when both religious groups were being very antagonistic towards the other. Although Charles II had fathered many illegitimate children with his numerous mistresses, he had not sired any legitimate children to inherit the English throne. Therefore, when Charles II died suddenly of a stroke on 6 February 1685, he was succeeded by his Roman Catholic younger brother James VII of Scotland. At that time many people in England had anticipated a Roman Catholic King with much apprehension, also, he was not thought to be a good prospect for a King. Nevertheless, James VII became King James II of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1685.

William Of Orange (1650-1702): King Of England (1689-1702)

The reign of King James II (born 1633 - 1701) proved to be unpopular amongst a number of English protestant nobles who were against King James II because of his Roman Catholic faith, but also, his stance on absolutism which is a belief in sovereignty by divine right, in other words, a doctrine that a monarch is not held accountable to any person, parliament, or institution for his decisions or actions in terms of ruling a nation. King James's rule is also remembered for conflicts within Britain over religious intolerance, he was the last Catholic King of England. In 1688, William III a Dutchman by birth, also known as William of Orange, was encouraged by English protestant nobles to invade England in order to claim the English throne, preserve Protestantism and create a free English Parliament. Around the same time in 1688, James II was forced to take refuge in France with his infant son. When William of Orange eventually arrived in Britain with his army those soldiers were not confronted with great opposition, as a result, William of Orange is remembered for winning the English throne broadly without any bloodshed. Importantly, within the historical arenas of wars this outcome was considered to be a remarkable achievement which famously became known as the Glorious Revolution. William III and his wife Mary II, who was James II's daughter, co-reigned as protestant monarchs of England, Scotland, and Ireland spanning from 1869 until 1702. Because Mary II was a Stuart by heritage and she was married to William III, this meant that even though James II had abdicated the English throne and fled to France, nevertheless, officially the era of the Stuarts had continued under William III (also known as William of Orange) and Mary II.

Under the tenure of King William of Orange a number of significant English laws were legislated. The Act of Settlement was passed by the English Parliament in 1701, which ensured the succession of the English and Irish crowns to protestant monarchs. The Act of Settlement of 1701 was designed not only to secure the protestant succession to the English throne, but also to strengthen the guarantees for ensuring a parliamentary system of government, which is precisely what many English protestant nobles had previously been calling for. Additionally, the Act of Settlement also served to strengthen the Bill of Rights which had received Royal Ascent on 16th December 1689, and that Act had already previously established the order of succession for Mary II's heirs. Unfortunately, Mary II, who was the wife of King William of Orange, suffered a number of miscarriages during her marriage to King William, she was said to have been bitterly disappointed that she had not produced an heir to the English throne. Mary II tragically died of smallpox in 1694.

On one fateful day in February 1702 William of Orange was out riding his favourite horse Sorrell around Hampton Court, when unexpectedly his horse bolted causing William to fall on the ground, and injure his collar bone very badly. Soon after his accident, it is thought that against given advice, William travelled to Kensington Palace, and as a result of his unnecessary exertions, over the ensuing days his health began to deteriorate very badly. William died on 8 March 1702, and following his passing, Anne (born 1665 - died 1714) who was the sister of Mary II (William's deceased wife) succeeded the English throne. Under the reign of Queen Anne some significant English laws were legislated, such as the Act of Union which were actually two Acts of Parliament, the union with Scotland Act 1706 was passed by the Parliament of Scotland, and the union with England Act 1707 was passed by the Parliament of England. As a consequence, beginning from 1706 in accordance with these two Acts, the Kingdom of England and Scotland became officially united as one kingdom, known from that day forth as Great Britain. England and Scotland had already begun sharing a sovereign monarchy since the Union of the Crown in 1603, when the Scottish monarch James VI had inherited the English throne as James (I) from his relative and predecessor, Queen Elizabeth (I). As a consequence, Queen Anne officially reigned as Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland, until her demise in 1714, when she was declared the last monarch of the House of Stuarts.

The Georgians (1714–1837)

Queen Anne was the last monarch of the Stuart dynasty, under the Treaty of Union (1707) she became the first Queen to rule over the United Kingdom, comprising England, Scotland and Wales. Queen Anne died in 1714 with no surviving children to take the throne after her, therefore, the Hanoverians, who were of German descent, was presented with the honour. The Georgian age started from 1714 after Queen Anne had passed away. The first Hanoverian King of Britain was in fact the 52nd in line to the British throne, but by virtue of the Act of Settlement, the Crown was given to the nearest eligible protestant relative who was George Ludwig I (1660 -1727). The Georgian era was named thus because of the reign of the four Georges, George I, George II, George III, and George IV. George III remains the longest serving King in British history, and the third longest reigning monarch in British history, only surpassed by Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II.

The Georgian Age was observed by some historians as a comparatively stable time period within Britain. During this era Great Britain underwent rapid changes politically, militarily and economically and from the 18th century onwards Britain was established as an international power at the centre of an expanding colonial empire. Britain became the world’s first industrialised nation initiating the Industrial Revolution within many western nations including the United States. The British Crown had acquired great wealth, along with the elite classes within the United Kingdom. This phenomenon had occurred alongside the existence of extreme poverty within particular regions in Britain and the exploitative policies of the British government upon the impoverished or working class people of Great Britain. In addition, Britain was heavily involved in the African slave trade, and the implementation of ruthless colonial rule in certain parts of the world.

The Victoria Era (1837–1901)

Queen Alexandrina Victoria (1819 - 1901) inherited the throne of the United Kingdom when she was just 18 years old, in British history her reign has become known as the Victorian era. Victoria ruled Britain from the year 1837 until she passed away in 1901. Victoria was Queen of Britain for sixty three years, seven months and two days. Her reign is only surpassed by her great-great granddaughter the extremely respected and well known Queen Elizabeth II, achieved on 9 September 2015. During the Victorian era Britain acquired unprecedented power and wealth, partly due to the Industrial Revolution, but also because of British colonialism in different parts of the world. Great Britain became infamous for ruthlessly exercising repression and control over its many colonies across the globe, but it was particularly the case relating to Britain's involvement in the African slave trade. Historians also state that during the Victorian era Britain had achieved relative political stability, which assisted Britain with advancements in education, science and research, mathematics, technology and engineering, transport, communication, as well as important political changes such as, the Reform Acts, which was enacted by the British Parliament to introduce major reforms to the British electoral system.

Edwardian Era

When Queen Victoria passed away in 1901, her eldest son Albert Edward VII (1841-1910) ascended the throne to become King of the United Kingdom. During Edward's brief tenure it was said that he was very popular and personable to know and socialize with, but that he was sometimes rather cavalier or neglectful in regards to his royal responsibilities. In British history the Edwardian era is sometimes said to span (1901 - 1914) even though King Edward VII died in 1910. In Britain the Edwardian era was well-known for witnessing the rich and the powerful publicly flaunting their fashionable attire and worldly possessions, as well as enjoying a luxurious and indulgent standard of living, but this era was also viewed as a time of moral decline. However, many historians agree that this brief but fascinating age saw great social and political transformations, as well as technological advancements, such as the steamship, the railway, and the motor car, The Edwardian era witnessed the rise of the suffragette movement, women in Britain fighting for equal rights, particularly the right to vote. The emergence of the labour party, and the Boer Wars relating to British colonial rule in South Africa. This was an era that witnessed international tensions running high between Britain and various other nations around the world. Nationalism and imperialism was on the rise in many nations with the spectre of the First World War creeping ever closer.

The Magna Carta is known by many names, the Charter of Liberties, the Royal Charter, and the Great Charter. The inauguration of the Magna Carta heralded the horizon of a new uncharted chapter in British history. When the nobles and barons of medieval Britain fought against King John of England in 1215, they had the intention to improve their rights and limit the power of the monarchy, ultimately, however, they had initiated events that would lead to a place beyond their vision of comprehension. Since the introduction of Magna Carta in 1215, over many generations spanning centuries, far nobler Acts have been introduced to the ever changing construction and reconstruction of a complicated, yet ever evolving governmental system, with numerous constituent parts, that we now perceive as democracy.