A Brief History Of The Great Wall Of China

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC - 256 BC)

The history of the Great Wall of China began in ancient China during the Zhou dynasty (1046 - 256 BC). The Zhou dynasty was established by the warlord known as Wu Wang, after he overthrew the Shang dynasty at the 'Battle of Muye' in 1046 BC. Thereafter, Wu Wang proclaimed himself as the sovereign ruler of Zhou. Unfortunately, Wang's reign was a brief duration, because he died approximately 3 years later in 1043 BC. However, the chronology of his reign is disputed by some scholars and historians. Nevertheless, the Zhou dynasty continued to rule ancient China for 789 years until about 256 BC, which lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history.

According to Chinese history, there were two significant time periods during the Zhou era, which were divided into two separate parts. The first was termed the Western Zhou era, and it spanned (1046 - 771 BC), followed by the Eastern Zhou era, which spanned (771- 256 BC). The first century of the Western Zhou dynasty is recorded as relatively peaceful between the various Chinese states in existence at that time. However, over the ensuing centuries, there was a gradual deterioration of relations between those states due to territorial disputes and struggles for sovereign power, which eventually led to war between the contender states. The Western era ended when the Quanrong nomads (Tibeto-Burman) attacked the capital Haojing and killed King You of Zhou in 771 BC. This event marked the end of the Western Zhou era and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou era. The first modest development of the Great Wall of China, initially made from earth and gravel, began in response to repeated incursions into Chinese territories by nomadic armies originating from the northern regions.

The Spring And Autumn Chronicles (771 BC - 476 BC)

The Eastern Zhou era was the second half of the Zhou dynasty, which spanned roughly (771 - 256 BC). This era was further subdivided into two very important and eventful time scopes in ancient Chinese history, namely, the 'Spring and Autumn Annals' and the 'Warring States period'. The Spring and Autumn Annals spanned (771 - 476 BC), the name was derived from an ancient Chinese chronicle that is one of the core Chinese classic writings since ancient times. The 'Annals' is the official chronicle of the ancient state of Lu, and the state of Lu is famous for being the home of the legendary Chinese philosopher Confucius. The Annals is a record of the main events that occurred in the State of Lu chronologically each year, such as the accessions, marriages and deaths of royals and monarchs, ritual observances, religious adherences, and natural disasters. During the Spring and Autumn period, an increasing number of monarchs fought amongst themselves over disputed regions to establish their authority, and eventually the Zhou dynasty lost control over several states, which had comprised China proper, namely, the old regions that had once constituted China. The feuds culminated in the division of the state of Jin in 386 BC, which was one of the most powerful Chinese states that had existed at that moment in ancient China. Subsequently, the state of Jin was separated into 3 successor states called Han, Zhao, and Wei. This action of separation marked the end of the Spring and Autumn era, and the beginning of the Warring States period.

The Warring States Period (475 BC - 221 BC)

The Warring States period was the second subdivision of the Eastern Zhou era, which spanned roughly between (475 to 221 BC), the name was derived from the 'Record of the Warring States' a work compiled early in the Han dynasty (The Han dynasty succeeded the Zhou dynasty), and is an ancient Chinese text that contains concise accounts of political strategies, schemes, and warfare undertaken by the opposing states during that era. The Warring States period was a particular time in ancient Chinese history, which was governed by extreme warfare between the various Chinese contender states, but also an important time of evolutionary bureaucracy, military reforms, and various territorial power struggles and consolidations. This era also witnessed the further evolution of Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism and Mohism. During the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States period, several small states existed as princedoms, and to protect their regions from each other as well as the invading Mongolian forces from the northern regions of China, each monarch ordered independent defensive walls to be constructed around their respective territories. According to historians, these first defensive sections had eventually evolved into the structure known as the Great Wall of China. The Warring States era concluded with the Qin conquest, namely, the annexation of the remaining six states (Han, Zheng, Yan, Wei, Chu, Qi) of ancient China, by the warlord Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. This historical event proved to be the first unification of all Chinese states, which became known as the Qin dynasty.

The First Emperor Of China (221 BC)

Qin Shi Huang's unprecedented achievement meant that he became the first Emperor of China in 221 BC. Unfortunately, Qin Huang's reign was short-lived, as he died a few years later. However, Qin Huang initiated a process of defensive wall building across China's borders that would evolve over hundreds of years by subsequent dynasties. As the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang resolved to defend his newfound kingdom against incursions by Nomads from the Eurasian steppe, and he endeavoured to maintain peace and unity between the new states under his governance. As both issues were considered a priority, Qin Huang immediately ordered that the pre-existing defensive wall structures, which had stood as demarcations for the previous states, be dismantled and that new walls be constructed and extended across the northern borders of his new empire. This act was undertaken to offer greater protection against the unceasing raids of the 'Hun' (warring Asiatic nomadic tribes) from the north. Initially, the materials used to construct the defensive walls were built of rammed earth (clay, sand, lime, chalk, and gravel). However, there were some sections of the defensive structures which were reinforced with stones. Originally, China's defensive walls were constructed by using thousands of forced labourers and by 212 BC, the Great Wall ran from Gansu in Northwest China to the coast of Southern Manchuria.

The Ancient Nomadic Tribes

The ancient Chinese feared potential incursions from three main areas of northern China, namely, Mongolia to the North, Manchuria to the northeast, and Xinjiang to the northwest, but the greatest of their concerns were the warrior tribes of Xiongnu, Khitans, Xianbei, as well as their arch enemy, the Mongolians who had established a fearsome reputation for being very skilful, tactful, and ruthless fighters. The Mongolians were also master horse riders and archers, with the important tactical advantage of possessing a superior number of horses, which assisted them in battles. The Mongolian soldiers relied on their horses for transportation, food, milk from the lactating mares, and horsehides for clothing and shelter. The steppe tribes of Asia lived in territories which favoured a pastoral economy, namely, a lifestyle which is based on shepherds herding livestock across open areas of land in accordance with the changing seasons and the availability of water and pasture. Importantly, the livelihoods of the nomadic tribes depended on their herds, and such animals were migratory by nature, meaning that those communities could not afford to be stationary throughout each year. As a result, over the passage of time, such communities had evolved to become nomadic peoples.

Meanwhile, the Chinese inhabited lands suitable for growing crops, and their economy was built on fertile fields. Therefore, China evolved into a far more diverse economy in relation to the nomadic communities. As the ancient Mongolian societies evolved and multiplied, they required certain goods to provide for their growing communities, and as they were unable to produce such goods for themselves, the Mongolians often attempted to trade their horses and furs for the products they needed from China, such as a variety of grains, which the Mongolians needed to supplement their diet and provide for their horses and herds. Also, the Mongolians required an abundant supply of metal tools as well as luxurious items, such as silk and lavish embroideries. However, if the nomad tribes did not receive the goods they wanted by way of an equitable trade with the Chinese, often the nomads resorted to forcibly taking such goods, which led to war between the two civilizations. Also, the Chinese employed an aggressive policy of expansionism by claiming large sections of the steppe, which disrupted the lifestyle of nomadic communities and proved to be a further reason for conflict between the two nations.

The Great Wall Of China

The name 'Great Wall' is said to have derived from the Chinese term Changcheng, which literally means long walls, but it is often translated as Great Wall. The need for the Great Walls arose because of the incessant attacks which predominantly emerged from China's northern frontier, in particular, the nomadic tribes of the 'steppes', namely, large areas of flat surfaced, unforested grasslands, in south-eastern Europe or Siberia. Ancient China had established a defensive wall-building program, which was continued over hundreds of years by subsequent dynasties, with each generation employing more advanced wall-building methods and better materials, as well as the expansion of the existing long walls over ever greater distances. Also, trenches were excavated along the exterior of the walls to bolster defence, and over time, innovative defensive structures, such as watchtowers, garrisons, and beacon towers, began to be built along the Great Walls for added security. Spanning many centuries, the Zhou dynasty (1046 - 256 BC), Qin dynasty (221 - 206 BC), Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), northern Qi dynasty (550 - 577), Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115 - 1234), and particularly, the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) were among those that contributed to the arduous tradition of the modernisation, elongation, and fortification of the Great Wall of China, which eventually became the world's largest military structure.

Genghis Khan's War On China

During the Jin dynasty (1115- 1234 BC), there were said to be sections of the Great Wall which were poorly built and did not form a unified defensive structure around certain parts of China's provinces. Genghis Khan (born between 1155 and 1162 - died 1227) became the emperor of Mongolia in 1206, and importantly, he was the first ruler to unify all the Mongolian tribes. Yet, Genghis Khan's thirst for power was not satiated, as he then focused his ambition on conquering China. During Genghis Khan's war campaigns against China, his spies and surveillance scouts had discovered certain vulnerabilities along the Great Wall of China. As a consequence, following careful preparation and planning, Genghis Khan was able to exploit such weaknesses. The vulnerable point along the Great Wall was a section called the 'Wusha Fortress' close to a desert ridge named Yehuling, northwest China. In 1206, Genghis Khan was able to form alliances with and unite all of the Mongolian tribes under his rule, said to be an unprecedented achievement, thereby creating a great army. Moreover, in later years, the Mongolians had formed alliances with a considerable number of disgruntled defectors of the Jin army (Jurchens), who had willingly assisted the Mongolians in their campaign against the Jin dynasty. Genghis Khan, commanded his armies to march around and invade a vulnerable area along the great wall to breach its defences and launch a devastating first phase attack against the capital 'Zhongdu' (present day Beijing) of the Jin dynasty, via the gateway which was the ridge of Yehuling, northwest of Juyong Pass, resulting in a great victory at the 'Battle of Yehuling' also known as 'Wild Fox Ridge' in 1211. Years later, Genghis Khan seized another momentous victory (Siege of Caizhou) over the Jin army in 1234. After Genghis Khan's demise in 1227, Khublai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan), went on to defeat the Song dynasty in 1279 and subsequently established the Yuan dynasty, which was the first foreign dynasty to commandeer China proper (the original 18 provinces of China). The Mongrel-led Yuan dynasty spanned 1279 to 1368, after which it was eventually defeated and expelled from China by the concerted efforts of the Ming dynasty in 1368.

The Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1664)

In 1421, the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the South to Beijing in the North, partly because the Ming government was haunted by the fear that their capital was too vulnerable to Mongolian invasions. After the capital was relocated, the Ming dynasty (1368-1664) decided to create a great fortress around Beijing like never before. The Ming dynasty was recorded in Chinese history for providing the greatest contribution to the fortification of the Great Wall of China, by rebuilding and re-modernizing the great structure in earnest. Moreover, the Ming dynasty is said to be the greatest innovator of the Great Wall of China. The Ming dynasty had harnessed all of the expertise and experience of defensive wall-building techniques that had been passed down through the centuries by the previous ancient Chinese generations. The Ming era introduced greater innovations for defensive wall structures, such as a more sophisticated architecture, new and better-quality materials for wall-building, including more advanced masonry production mechanisms, more advanced working tools, and much improved craftsmanship, as compared to their predecessors.

The Great Walls were also used as avenues for transportation and communicating messages, by means of smoke signals during the day from beacon towers, warning of imminent invasions. The colour and thickness of the smoke would vary, depending on the perceived size of the invasions. At night, signals could be conveyed by means of fires or lanterns. In some cases, post horses or foot courier soldiers delivered messages to different sections of the wall. Along some stretches of the northern borders, natural barriers such as mountains, ravines, and rivers were sufficient as part of China's defence fortress, in addition to defensive walls which were built sparingly in those particular areas. Ancient Chinese records state that over the centuries spanning the construction of the Great Wall of China, countless Chinese labourers tragically lost their lives, and it is said that some of the deceased remains are still buried deep within parts of the Great Wall.

Nine-Arch Great Wall Bridge

The Jiumenkou Great Wall constitutes a section of the Great Wall of China, and its construction dates from the Northern Qui dynasty (550 - 577). This section of the Great Wall also comprises the famous Nine-Arch Great Wall Bridge or Nine Openings' Bridge, and is reported to be the only section of the Great Wall which crosses a river, namely, the Jiujiang River in Suizhong County, Liaoning Province, and was considered to be a strategically important part of a valley allowing access into China. The Ming dynasty had undertaken further construction improvements on the Jiumemkou Great Wall beginning between 1381 - 1382. The Ming dynasty also introduced innovative architecture for religious temples situated on sections of the Great Wall. This era also witnessed the construction of more advanced and a greater number of defence features, such as crenellations, ramparts, higher walls and watchtowers, which provided better protective shelter from arrows and other types of ancient ballistics, such as launched rocks. In addition, from approximately 1569, living quarters for soldiers were built along the walls, with space to store food and water, and other provisions, as well as stockpiles of weapons and ammunition. The Great Wall crosses Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Tianjin, Beijing, and Liaoning (over 2000 km, 1,300 miles in distance), but the entire distance of China's Great Wall is 13,171 miles.

The Ordos Region Defence Wall

During the Ming era, one of the greatly contested regions was the Ordos desert, which is a desert steppe region in northwest China, an area almost completely encircled in the north, west, and east by the great rectangular bend of the Yellow River (the second largest river in China) known as the Ordos Loop. Lofty mountains separate the Ordos from the Gobi Desert, which is north and east of the Yellow River. Beginning from the 1470s, a high ranking government official called Yu Zijun was commissioned by the Ming rulers to build an extensive defence wall system across the Ordos region, Yu's wall expansion consisted of two defensive walls; the first outer wall was called the 'great border' and a 'secondary border' was built by Yang Yiqing (scholar) behind the outer wall. In the south and east, the Great Wall of China was extended to separate the Ordos from the fertile loess region or Chinese loess plateau, an area full of yellow wind-blown sediments, located southeast of the Gobi Desert and surrounded by the Yellow River. The Ordos covers the southern section of Inner Mongolia, which was an autonomous region of China controlled by the Ming dynasty. The Wei River is a major river in west-central China's Gansu and Shaanxi provinces and is the greatest tributary to the Yellow River. The Ming dynasty considered this region of strategic importance for defence, trading, and the transportation of provisions. Moreover, this region was considered very important to the early development of China's civilization. It is often famously referred to as the cradle of Chinese civilization, where the ancient capital Xi'an was situated. The Xi'an capital was said to be the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, which was once the ancient trade route that connected China with the Mediterranean.

The Qing Dynasty (1664 - 1912)

The Qing dynasty, which is also known as the Manchu dynasty, overthrew the Ming dynasty in 1664, and it spanned 1664 -1912. The Manchus were an ethnic minority living in ancient China who descended from the Jurchen people. The term 'Jurchen' is used to collectively describe a group of East Asian tribes of the Donghu race. The term 'Donghu' referred to a tribal confederation of eastern nomadic people from Manchuria who were first recorded in the 7th century BC; the province of Manchuria is located in north-eastern China, and the Qing dynasty was established by the Manchus. The fall of the Ming dynasty was due to several factors, namely, government corruption, economic mismanagement, natural disasters, rebellion of the peasants, and the rise of the Manchus. The Qing dynasty discontinued the defensive wall-building tradition of its predecessors. Instead, it chose to employ policies of diplomacy and fortified its borders using various other military strategies. The Great Wall of China is acknowledged as one of the seven wonders of the world. Picturesque, imposing, and imperial, its rhythmical, undulating journey is undaunted by the impossible terrains placed within its path, as it traverses, ascends, and descends rolling hills and majestic mountains, creating a magical vision from afar, like a mythical creature performing a mystical meandering dance far into the distance, to meet with the glorious sun beyond the horizon.

Written by Star_gazer

Published 1 December 2021