Vintage Images Of Black Women's Fashion

James Forten (1766 - 1842)

James Forten (born 1766 - died 1842) was an African American business owner and abolitionist who was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. After the American Revolutionary War, Forten enrolled in a sail loft company as a young apprentice to train as a sailmaker, and following his apprenticeship, Forten continued to build a successful career for himself within the same company. He worked diligently and fastidiously, rising steadily through the ranks to eventually become a senior overseer. Many years later, Forten purchased the sail loft business from his friend and former boss Robert Bridges, after Bridges's retirement in 1798. During the 19th century, the sailing industries across many nations raced to construct a wide range of war and merchant sailing ships; moreover, the demand for good sail loft services had increased dramatically. Such was the demand across the globe within the sailing industry at that time that the era was famously coined the Golden Age of Sail. Nevertheless, in that era, the odds were against Forten becoming a successful business owner in that sector of business, on account of who he was. But despite untold obstacles that confronted him, due to his skin colour, Forten managed to navigate paths to develop his business acumen. Furthermore, Forten was the innovator of sailing equipment that was ahead of its time, which turned out to better guide ships across the seas. Also, Forten had successfully employed a diverse workforce with black and white employees of various ages, and consequently, over time, he was able to build a reputable and highly lucrative business on a busy waterfront called Penn's Landing, which was situated in Philadelphia, the United States, and remarkably, James Forten became prosperous beyond his wildest dreams, achieving financial wealth that made him one of the richest businessmen in the entire city of Philadelphia.

William Lloyd Garrison (born 1805 - died 1879) was a white American journalist, abolitionist, and social reformer who was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, United States. It is believed that Forten encountered Garrison in about 1830, in Philadelphia, when Garrison, a passionate 25-year-old, had been standing on a stage delivering vociferous anti-slavery lectures. When Forten and Garrison were eventually introduced to each other, the two men immediately established a rapport and were pleasantly surprised to discover that they shared similar political ideas and aims. Consequently, Garrison explained at length about his ideas to create a political newspaper. Forten expressed an interest, and following a long discussion about the aims and direction of the newspaper, the two men agreed a private arrangement, namely, Forten would use his considerable wealth to offer financial support for Garrison's new business venture, on the condition that the publication remained true to the agenda and ideals which both men had discussed and agreed, and providing Forten was regularly given a small section within the publication to write and showcase his personal political views. In addition, Forten pledged to use his influence amongst the population of African American citizens in Philadelphia in order to galvanize their readership for the new newspaper, which was called The Liberator, to help ensure its success.

William Garrison created a newspaper called The Liberator (1831 - 1865) in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. The Liberator newspaper had vigorously campaigned against slavery in the United States and championed the concept of political and social equality for all Americans, irrespective of gender or race. In addition, William Garrison co-founded the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) in 1833, provided generous support to the women's suffrage movement, and was also known as a journalistic crusader. Meanwhile, William Forten had forged his reputation by working tirelessly in support of civil rights for all American citizens, especially African Americans. Also, Forten used his wealth and position to support other humanitarian causes, as well as provide help and support to the poorest citizens who lived in Philadelphia. Forten and his wife Charlotte Vandine produced nine children, each of whom became civil rights activists and staunch advocates of women's rights, and they inherited and demonstrated their father's relentless drive to end injustices against African Americans. The most famous of Forten's children were daughters, Harriet, Margaretta, and Sarah, who became the co-founders of the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, which was one of the first abolitionist and interracial women's rights groups founded in the United States. When James Forten died at the age of seventy-five, in 1842, his legacy was such that thousands of Philadelphian citizens of different races and social classes travelled to his funeral to offer their respects, including family members, relatives, friends, business associates, and many people in the community where he had resided. Forten's generosity and good deeds had extended over generations, illuminating the lives of numerous people across the city, like so many of the illuminating lights that sparkled across the city of Philadelphia at night.

Black Women Suffragettes

Harriet Forten Purvis (1810 - 1875)

Harriet Forten Purvis (born 1810 - died 1875) was the daughter of successful African American business owner James Forten, and she became a prominent African American abolitionist, women's rights activist, and one of the first-generation Black women suffragettes. James Forten was a strong advocate of education, and on account of his fortune, Forten provided an excellent private education for his children, as a result, Harriet developed a keen interest in art, music, religious works, classic literature, famous novels, and William Shakespeare. Additionally, Harriet was a member of the Black Female Literary Association, the Edgeworth Literary Association, and the Female Minervian Association. Harriet Forten married a mixed-race American called Robert Purvis in 1832. Purvis (1810 - 1898) was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in America, his father was a wealthy British merchant, and his mother was a Sub-Saharan African. Purvis was one of three brothers who inherited a vast financial fortune from his father. Robert Purvis used his wealth to acquire large areas of land and create a successful business. After Harriet Forten and Robert Purvis married, they decided to raise a family in Philadelphia, where the couple launched campaigns for women's rights and civil rights, and they strived to end the oppression of African Americans. Also, the couple had used their home in Philadelphia to secretly shelter escaped slaves and assist thousands to cross American borders into locations such as Canada. In late 1833, Harriet joined forces with her sisters and other activists to create the first interracial society that was organised predominantly by women. It was called the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society (PFASS), and the event had occurred a few days after the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS), founded in the same city which was allegedly a men-only society. Years later, Harriet became a member of the National Woman Suffrage Association, which was founded in New York in 1869, and the directors of this organization were renowned suffragists, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

Sarah Parker Remond (1826-1894)

In the early 20th century, an estimated 20,000 black people were living in Britain, and of this demographic, the black female population was about 5,000. It is said that a percentage of black women living in Britain were feminist activists who had supported Women's Suffrage at that time. However, the exact figures are unknown, as in that era, British historical records often did not include a person's skin colour. In fact, it was not until 1991 that the British census relating to questions about a person's ethnicity officially became a standard requirement. Interestingly, however, Sarah Parker Remond (born 1826 - died 1894) was an African American lecturer, abolitionist, suffragist, and physician who had arrived in Britain in 1859, and notably, she became the first black student to attend Bedford College for Ladies, where she studied History, Latin, Music, French, and English Literature. When Remond arrived in Britain, she cheerfully remarked that it was refreshing to receive such a warm welcome from British people, as well as relatively fewer prejudices than she had encountered in America. While visiting Britain, Remond had lectured about the oppression and atrocities suffered by untold African Americans in the United States. Meanwhile, she became a high-profile member and supporter of the British Women's Suffrage Movement, and importantly, Remond's signature was included on the famous 1866 Women's Suffrage petition, which demanded the right for British women to vote. The petition was comprised of around 1,500 female signatures, some of which were highly esteemed individuals, and this petition was then presented to the British Parliament in the same year.

Sarah Remond began publicly denouncing injustices against African Americans from the age of sixteen, and her campaign tours, which lasted many years, took her across the United States, then Britain, and eventually other parts of Europe. Despite the challenges in terms of her race and gender, Remond remained steadfast in her campaign to publicly condemn racial and gender discrimination. Meanwhile, she had forged her reputation by evoking passionate intellectual debates that appealed to people's moral consciences. Sarah Remond received British citizenship on 11 September 1865, and given she had already attained a high level of education, she was able to redirect her career aspirations by enrolling for a nursing degree at the University College London, in the same year. After achieving a nursing degree in London, Remond decided to immigrate to Italy between late 1866 and early 1867, to live in Florence, where she gained entrance as a medical student in the Department of Obstetrics at the Santa Maria Nuova Hospital University, in Florence. At that time, the Santa Maria Nuova was known as one of the most prestigious medical universities in Europe. Remond graduated successfully by becoming one of the first African American women to obtain a medical degree, in 1868, according to certain sources, Remond received a qualification as an obstetrician, while others claim that she received a doctorate as a physician. In any case, she remained in Rome and practiced medicine for more than 20 years. When Sarah Remond died in Florence in 1898, initially, her burial was in an unmarked grave. However, in more recent times, she has been posthumously celebrated, partly due to a memorial plaque built to honour her memory. Sarah Parker Remond was a trailblazer of her era, namely, she was one of the first to become an internationally acclaimed female activist, who promoted both human rights and women's suffrage, but, most impressively, despite living in an era that presented obstacles relating to her gender and race, she was still able to achieve a medical degree, proving that she was also a woman of science.

Mary Ann Camberton Shadd Cary (1823 - 1893)

Mary Ann Shadd Cary (1823-1893) was an African American Canadian anti-slavery activist, teacher, journalist, and lawyer. Mary Ann was born in Delaware, United States, in 1823, where her abolitionist parents ran their home as an Underground Railroad. The so-called Underground Railroad was an organized network of secret routes and safe houses in the United States, used by freedom seekers (runaway slaves) to escape into free states or nations. In that era Delaware laws had prohibited African American children from education in Delaware schools. Therefore, Mary Ann's parents moved to Pennsylvania, where they were fortunate enough to send their children to a Quaker boarding school. Mary Ann used the wealth of education that she had received to fight for oppressed citizens in America and helped to create activist groups whose aim was to challenge, by peaceful means, existing United States laws that disparaged certain groups, and she advocated equal rights and suffrage for women. Importantly, Mary Ann was the first woman of any race in the history of North America to establish, edit, and run a newspaper company, and she created the Provincial Freeman in 1853, in Canada. In addition, Mary Ann was the second African American woman to attend law school in the United States (Howard University School of Law) in 1869, where she attended evening classes, and successfully graduated in a law degree, in 1883, albeit, it had taken her well over a decade to achieve this feat, allegedly, this was partly due to gender discrimination and economic hardships. In any case, both achievements were remarkable, considering the immense financial, political, and social challenges, which had confronted African American women in the 19th century.

Mary Ann was a scholar who cradled an undying passion to teach others, as a result, she taught at a variety of schools across the United States, first at Wilmington school, in Delaware, then at schools in New York City, Trenton, New Jersey, West Chester Borough in Pennsylvania, and Norristown in Pennsylvania. Mary Ann taught both black and white children, and she advocated breaking racial barriers by creating integrated schools that accepted all races. Moreover, Mary Ann opened one of the first integrated schools in Canada, which was a brave and innovative venture that spawned enemies against her, but on the other hand, she received many admirers. Mary Ann was among the wave of courageous first-generation women who were involved in the women’s suffrage movement, and she enlisted as a member of the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), which was one of America's most powerful women's suffrage associations at that time. Notably, Mary Ann attended a House Judiciary Committee hearing (1874) where she had voiced support for both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, and at the same time, she had criticized the Fifteenth Amendment because it did not give women the right to vote. The Fourteenth Amendment, passed by Congress in 1866 and ratified in 1868, extended liberties and rights (granted by the Bill of Rights) to African Americans born or naturalized in the United States. Meanwhile, the Fifteenth Amendment, passed by Congress in 1869 and ratified in 1870, granted African American men the right to vote. However, it is important to mention that this amendment was not sufficient, as African Americans were still denied the right to vote by state laws. African Americans were faced with obstacles such as literacy tests, poll taxes that were a prerequisite for the right to vote, the grandfather clause, and flagrant intimidation from racial bigots. However, today, Mary Ann Cary is posthumously celebrated as one of Canada's greatest women trailblazers and acknowledged by many people as an inspiration for all women. Also, in the USA, Mary Ann Cary was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1998.

Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862-1931)

Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862-1931) was born in Holly Springs, Mississippi, United States. She was a sociologist, teacher, women's rights activist, suffragette, and investigative journalist. Wells-Barnett was also one of the early African American leaders in the civil rights movement, and one of the founding members of the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP), a civil rights interracial organisation created in the United States in 1909. Wells-Barnett's journalistic career began in Memphis, Tennessee, at age 23, in 1885, when she was employed as the editor of a local newspaper, with a small local readership, called the Evening Star. Over time, Wells-Barnett's editorials began to gain popularity around the local areas where she worked, and subsequently, Wells was approached by Reverend Countee, a Baptist minister who lived in Memphis. Reverend Countee ran a weekly publication called the Living Way, and he invited Wells-Barnett to write a weekly column for that publication. Unfortunately, the Reverend had confessed that he could not pay her a wage. However, Wells was presented with a golden opportunity to further her career and realize her passion, namely, to continue writing articles about serious cases relating to gender and race relations, and importantly, the Living Way presented Wells with a greater audience to engage with. Throughout her prolific career, Wells-Barnett became famous for creating memorable quotes, and one of her gems was 'the way to right wrongs is to turn the light of truth upon them.'

Wells-Barnett was perceived as a journalistic pioneer due to her gender, race, employment role, and the controversial subject matters that she courageously confronted in 19th-century America. Wells-Barnett wrote about the injustices against African Americans and championed civil rights for all Americans. She was also passionate about women's rights and often used her position and pen prowess to write and speak out about injustices against women in an attempt to build a fairer society for the fairer sex, for the foreseeable future. Wells-Barnett also attempted to challenge social norms and initiate important political changes, which ultimately enraged her critics and her enemies; indeed, some of her actions had placed her in mortal danger. Nevertheless, she remained undaunted and steadfast, demonstrating that she was arguably one of the bravest black suffragettes from that era. Her work soon gained even greater recognition, and eventually she was nationally commended for her courage and applauded for her creative writing skills, which earned her the nicknames Princess of the Press and the Brilliant Iola. Wells-Barnett was arguably one of the most active female journalists that one could encounter at that time. During her illustrious journalistic career, she worked for newspapers (co-owned some newspapers), such as the Detroit Plaindealer, the Chattanooga Justice, the Gate City Press, the Conservator, the Memphis Free Speech, the Evening Star, the Living Way, the New York Age, and the Chicago Daily Inter-Ocean. Many of the newspapers Wells-Barnett wrote for were under her pen name, and many of the publications she wrote attracted a dedicated African American readership, especially in the early part of her career. However, later in her career, as her work received more publicity and greater respect, white American audiences began to take a greater interest in her written articles. And in the United States, in 2020, Wells-Barnett was posthumously honoured with a Pulitzer Prize special citation 'for her outstanding and courageous reporting' during the harsh and uncompromising American segregation era.

Charlotte E. Ray (1850-1911)

Charlotte E. Ray (1850-1911) was born in New York City, United States, and she was a teacher, a female activist, a suffragette, and the first African American female lawyer. Charlotte's parents were pastors, Charles Bennett Ray and Charlotte Augusta Burroughs Ray. It is said that Charlotte's early years of education were greatly influenced by her father and mother, who had devoted considerable time and effort to mould her into a knowledgeable and well-rounded person with high aspirations and ideals. Charlotte proved to be a very dedicated and diligent student who eventually gained entrance to the Institution for the Education of Coloured Youth in Washington. In that era, it was one of the few good educational establishments that were available to African Americans. When she was 19 years old, Charlotte obtained a teaching position at Howard University School of Law, and she made an application to become a law student at that University while on the Howard faculty and was accepted in the same year. Subsequently, Charlotte proved herself to be an exceptional law student by becoming the first African American woman to graduate from law school on 27 February 1872, and later in the same year, she made history by becoming the first female to officially practice law.

It is important to mention that in the 19th century most women, particularly African American women, were forbidden from the legal profession, and women were not permitted to attend law schools or obtain licenses to practice law across the United States, as at that time, the legal profession was largely controlled by wealthy white men. However, Howard University School of Law was the first University in the United States to implement a non-discriminatory admissions policy. Howard University admitted white and black male students, as well as female law students. Nevertheless, Charlotte Ray had to shoulder the daily burden of gender discrimination, but with diligence and determination, she successfully graduated in February 1872. However, her next mission was to complete her bar examination, and in that era, no woman of any race was legally permitted to the bar of the District of Columbia, despite this, Charlotte Ray registered for her bar examination as C.E. Ray and secured her admission to take the examination. As a result, Ray made history by successfully becoming the first female to pass the bar exam of the District of Columbia. The term, bar, means being allowed to practice law in a court of law. Historically, the bar is known as the line that separates spectators within a law court from those involved in the practice of the case. The term originated from medieval Europe, where it was quite simply a wooden bar, which was laid across a space to officially mark a designated area within a law court. Charlotte Ray was the first woman to be admitted to the District of Columbia Bar (23 April 1872), and she became the first woman of any race to be admitted to practice law before the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. Arguably, Charlotte Ray is the first female in history to achieve a law degree and officially practice law. The only other possible contenders are Arabella Mansfield (born 1846- died 1911), who passed the Iowa bar exam in 1869, and Marija Milutinović Punktatorka (born 1810- died 1875), who was given special permission to work as a lawyer in Serbia in 1847. Both individuals had proved themselves outstanding in their achievements, considering the era in which they had lived. However, neither one of them had achieved a law degree from an official University School of Law, and neither one had practiced traditional law during their professional career.

With high hopes, Charlotte Ray opened her law firm in Washington, D.C. in 1872, where she specialized in commercial law. Unfortunately, due to gender and race discrimination, Ray struggled to attract enough clients, which impeded her ability to sustain her profession. As a result, historical records show that Charlotte Ray ceased her law practice in 1879. It is difficult to imagine the deep disappointment that she must have felt after such high optimism, and difficult to know quite how successful she could have been without such hurdles. But the experience had reshaped her career, Charlotte Ray moved back to New York, where she began working as a teacher and was struck with an intense passion to fight for women's rights, and women's suffrage, along with many of her highly motivated sisters, until her untimely demise at sixty years of age.

 

Written by Star_gazer

Published 3 May 2021